Nyay Philosophy And It's Epistemological Views : Ancient Indian School Of Rationalism

Nyaya epistemology based on four fundamental aspects which are :

   1 . Pratakahya (perception) ,2 . Anumana( inference)   ,3 . Upamana( comparison and analogy) and sabda( Testimony)                                                                                                          These are called " pramanas " which is typically translates as " valid source of knowledge".

Nyay mostly emphasis more on the notion of  veridical inferential cognition  which means inferences which are deducted should be veridical( rightful, verifiable ) in nature . In Nyay philosophy anything which is not rightful or sensible should be discarded. they do not support mystery mongering and ritualism ,they solely operate on a intellectual level , which promotes robust realism ,universals selves and substances. The  whole epistemology based on realibilism ( cognitive belief forming process)  but rejects skepticism. 

Akshapada Gautama also known as Gotama is said to be the founder of "Nyaya Shastra" in 2nd B.C.E. Also Vatsanyasa ( 450c.e) until Vdanacharya (10th century)worked on the old -Nyay philosophy which is called as "Prachina -Nyayan" ,which rose in Bengal. Though Founder of "Navya -Nyay" was  Gangesha in 13th century.  

Now let's talk  about in detail about the four pramanas which I have mentioned earlier.                         

   1. Pratakahya( perception) :   when five senses or any sense in particular interact with surrounding with objects ,produces perception. So ,perception is the product of subject - object interaction .               Perception is commonly empirical in nature ,though there are types of it . 

There are two types of perception ,which are :   A. Laukika pratakshya ( ordinary perception attained through senses)    

B. Alaukika pratakshya( extra ordinary perception) .    This perception is also classified into three parts,which are 

     a. Samanya lakshana: perceiving generality from a particular object 

b. Jnana lakshana: perceiving qualitative attributes  of a particular object or more precisely, when one sense organ perceives qualities which are not attributable to the object of observation .  For example ,when one sees a chili 🌶️ he knows that if it is bitter it hot. Or when one sees ice ,he knows it is cold or hot. 

c. Yogaja:   when one attains the power of seeing past ,present and future by practicing yoga or by doing severe penance. 

2. Anumana( Inference) : Here ,inference do not deal with the concept that knowledge can be drawn from subject - object interaction ,but rather focuses on cognitive mechanism which will lead to provable inference ,which is called veridical inferential cognition . Here , inference deals with sign or lingual codes which invariably related with the  perception . 

There are five  kinds of inferences according to this epistemology,which are 

a. Swarth  Anumana: inference for oneself 

b. Parath Anumana: inference for others 

c. Purvavas: inferring unperceived effect from a perceived cause . 

d. Seshavas: inferring unperceived cause from a perceived effect . 

e. Samanya trodishta: it  do not believe in causality theory or causation but says ,that inference is based on the concept of                  " Uniformity of co - existence" . 

3. Upamana ( comparison and analogy) : it states,that knowledge can be obtained by comparing different events and their similarities using analogy. 

4 . Sabda( Testimonial evidence) : There are two kinds of testimonies valid for Nyay darshan ,which are  : 

a. Vaidika : words or statements from Vedas .

b . Laukika: words and statements of human who are trustworthy . 

Now ,these valid sources of knowledge is also classified in two parts ,which are : 

1. Anubhava ( experiential) 

2. Smriti ( memory)

Nyay philosophy rejects doubt ( samsaya) ,faulty cognition ( Bhrama or viparyaya) and hypothetical argument ( Tarka) . These together are called " Aprama" which typically translates as "Invalid" . 

This epistemology also categorised  different objects of knowledge ,which usually interact with us on daily basis and from these interaction knowledge can be drawn . 

Nyay called the object of knowledge   as           " Prameya" which is ontological in nature . Prameya typically translates as Ontology ( it seeks the classification and explanation of entities from fundamental level to topmost) .

Nyay considers 12 objects of knowledge . 

1. Aatma : individual conscious unit. 

2 . Sarira : physical or material body 

3. Indriya: sensory organs 

4. Artha: objects of senses 

5. Buddhi: cognition or intellect 

6. Manas: Mind  

7. Pravrti: tendencies or activities ( mental and physical both) 

8 . Dosa: mental defects 

9. Pretyabhava: life and death 

10. Phala : results of pleasures and pain 

11. Duhkha: suffering 

12. Apavarga: permanent relief from all suffering. 

There are many aspects of this epistemology ,which  are mind related and also talks about several states of an argument or Discussion( Vada shastra) .  

A. Samsay ( Doubt) : A state in which mind wavers between conflicting views regarding a single object. Samsay is not a certain knowledge,nor it is a mere reflection of knowledge  nor it is invalid or wrong .             It is a positive state of cognition but the cognition is split into two and does not provide any definite conclusion.                       Doubt is the product of confused state of mind. 

B. Prayojana ( aim) : No action can be performed without aim or objective or target to achieve results. One acts either to achieve desirable objects or to get rid of undesirable ones and those desirable and undesirable objects are called prayojana. 

C. Drashtana(Example ) : This refers to using an example or illustration to highlight a common fact and establish an common ground to an argument.                                        For instance, one say that there must me fire because one sees smoke and can refer to the fire and smoke in a kitchen to establish a common ground . 

D. Siddhant ( Doctrine) : An axiomatic postulate accepted as undisputed truth and serves as the foundation for entire theory of system if philosophy . 

E. Avayava(constituents of inference) : if an inference has fiv necessary  parts or elements ,then it is assumed that it can give correct knowledge. These components are : 

1. Pratijna( statements) 

2. Hetu( reason) 

3. Udaharana( example) 

4. Upanayan( universal proposition) 

5. Nigamana( conclusion) 

Nyay Darshan also mentioned aspects about Vada - shastra ( Discussion ) . 

They talk in detail about "jalpa " ,which means when two parties try to defeat each other through dishonest means .  There are so many prejudice and personal ego involve in the discussion. Hence , we see it is difficult to achieve truth from the discussion . 

Now let's talk about the certain aspects of discussion. 

1. Vitanda( irrational reasoning) : it is mere destructive criticism ,aimed at refuting antagonist's position . 

2. Hetubhasa( specious reasoning) : A statement meant to fool or cheat someone ,in an argument. A person pretends to understand a word or phrase used in a particular sense as others than what was intended and then denies the truth of this deliberate misinterpretation of the speaker's words. 

3. Jati ( false analogy) : generally when someone draw analogy between two different things or events . When one compares soil or clay with sky ,but technically it is wrong as clay is material and sky is non material. 

4. Nigrahasthana( ground of defeat) : 

 the point  when one accepts defeat  in an argument. 

 So ,these main are   components of Nyay epistemology and have been thoroughly discussed in " Nyay Sutra".